Chapter I · Chapter 1

used before a singular noun to mean one of a group, when it is not a particular one

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

perfect or complete or pure

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

the quality of being near to the true value

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

(quantifier) used with either mass or count nouns to indicate the whole number or amount of or every one of a class

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

in addition

From this reading It was also equally impossible to appreciate the effect of punishment for good or evil on the criminal population.

the form of “a” used before a word that begins with a vowel sound

From this reading It is only within the present century, and in some countries it is only within the present generation, that the possibility has arisen of conducting the study of criminal problems on anything approaching an exact and scientific basis.

used to join words or parts of a sentence that go together

From this reading It is only within the present century, and in some countries it is only within the present generation, that the possibility has arisen of conducting the study of criminal problems on anything approaching an exact and scientific basis.

any thing at all

From this reading It is only within the present century, and in some countries it is only within the present generation, that the possibility has arisen of conducting the study of criminal problems on anything approaching an exact and scientific basis.

recognize with gratitude; be grateful for

From this reading It was also equally impossible to appreciate the effect of punishment for good or evil on the criminal population.

the event of one object coming closer to another

From this reading It is only within the present century, and in some countries it is only within the present generation, that the possibility has arisen of conducting the study of criminal problems on anything approaching an exact and scientific basis.

inflected form of “arise” — come into existence; take on form or shape

From this reading It is only within the present century, and in some countries it is only within the present generation, that the possibility has arisen of conducting the study of criminal problems on anything approaching an exact and scientific basis.

at the same time that; because; in the way that

From this reading Justice had little or no data to go upon; prisoners were sentenced in batches to the gallows, to transportation, to the hulks, or to the county gaol, but no inquiry was made as to the result of these punishments on the criminal classes or on the progress of crime.

establish after a calculation, investigation, experiment, survey, or study

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

a relation that provides the foundation for something

From this reading It is only within the present century, and in some countries it is only within the present generation, that the possibility has arisen of conducting the study of criminal problems on anything approaching an exact and scientific basis.

plural of “batch” — all the loaves of bread baked at the same time

From this reading Justice had little or no data to go upon; prisoners were sentenced in batches to the gallows, to transportation, to the hulks, or to the county gaol, but no inquiry was made as to the result of these punishments on the criminal classes or on the progress of crime.

earlier than; in front of

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

used to introduce something that contrasts with what came before

From this reading Justice had little or no data to go upon; prisoners were sentenced in batches to the gallows, to transportation, to the hulks, or to the county gaol, but no inquiry was made as to the result of these punishments on the criminal classes or on the progress of crime.

showing who or what does the action

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

a period of 100 years

From this reading It is only within the present century, and in some countries it is only within the present generation, that the possibility has arisen of conducting the study of criminal problems on anything approaching an exact and scientific basis.

plural of “change” — an event that occurs when something passes from one state or phase to another

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

having a high state of culture and development both social and technological

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

plural of “class” — a collection of things sharing a common attribute

From this reading Justice had little or no data to go upon; prisoners were sentenced in batches to the gallows, to transportation, to the hulks, or to the county gaol, but no inquiry was made as to the result of these punishments on the criminal classes or on the progress of crime.

plural of “community” — a group of people living in a particular local area

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

the way of administering a business

From this reading It is only within the present century, and in some countries it is only within the present generation, that the possibility has arisen of conducting the study of criminal problems on anything approaching an exact and scientific basis.

a phenomenon that follows and is caused by some previous phenomenon

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

without variation or change, in every case

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

plural of “country” — a politically organized body of people under a single government

From this reading It is only within the present century, and in some countries it is only within the present generation, that the possibility has arisen of conducting the study of criminal problems on anything approaching an exact and scientific basis.

(United Kingdom) a region created by territorial division for the purpose of local government

From this reading Justice had little or no data to go upon; prisoners were sentenced in batches to the gallows, to transportation, to the hulks, or to the county gaol, but no inquiry was made as to the result of these punishments on the criminal classes or on the progress of crime.

(criminal law) an act punishable by law; usually considered an evil act

From this reading THE STATISTICS OF CRIME.

bringing or deserving severe rebuke or censure

From this reading It is only within the present century, and in some countries it is only within the present generation, that the possibility has arisen of conducting the study of criminal problems on anything approaching an exact and scientific basis.

a collection of facts from which conclusions may be drawn

From this reading Justice had little or no data to go upon; prisoners were sentenced in batches to the gallows, to transportation, to the hulks, or to the county gaol, but no inquiry was made as to the result of these punishments on the criminal classes or on the progress of crime.

becoming less or smaller

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

of or relating to an economy, the system of production and management of material wealth

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

a phenomenon that follows and is caused by some previous phenomenon

From this reading It was also equally impossible to appreciate the effect of punishment for good or evil on the criminal population.

to the same degree (often followed by “as”)

From this reading It was also equally impossible to appreciate the effect of punishment for good or evil on the criminal population.

morally objectionable behavior

From this reading It was also equally impossible to appreciate the effect of punishment for good or evil on the criminal population.

Strictly particular and correct.

From this reading It is only within the present century, and in some countries it is only within the present generation, that the possibility has arisen of conducting the study of criminal problems on anything approaching an exact and scientific basis.

intended to be given to, or used by, somebody

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

an instrument of execution consisting of a wooden frame from which a condemned person is executed by hanging

From this reading Justice had little or no data to go upon; prisoners were sentenced in batches to the gallows, to transportation, to the hulks, or to the county gaol, but no inquiry was made as to the result of these punishments on the criminal classes or on the progress of crime.

a correctional institution used to detain persons who are in the lawful custody of the government (either accused persons awaiting trial or convicted persons serving a sentence)

From this reading Justice had little or no data to go upon; prisoners were sentenced in batches to the gallows, to transportation, to the hulks, or to the county gaol, but no inquiry was made as to the result of these punishments on the criminal classes or on the progress of crime.

all the people living at the same time or of approximately the same age

From this reading It is only within the present century, and in some countries it is only within the present generation, that the possibility has arisen of conducting the study of criminal problems on anything approaching an exact and scientific basis.

change location; move, travel, or proceed, also metaphorically

From this reading Justice had little or no data to go upon; prisoners were sentenced in batches to the gallows, to transportation, to the hulks, or to the county gaol, but no inquiry was made as to the result of these punishments on the criminal classes or on the progress of crime.

having desirable or positive qualities especially those suitable for a thing specified

From this reading It was also equally impossible to appreciate the effect of punishment for good or evil on the criminal population.

the past form of “have”, used to form the past perfect

From this reading Justice had little or no data to go upon; prisoners were sentenced in batches to the gallows, to transportation, to the hulks, or to the county gaol, but no inquiry was made as to the result of these punishments on the criminal classes or on the progress of crime.

the form of “have” used with he, she, it, or a singular noun

From this reading It is only within the present century, and in some countries it is only within the present generation, that the possibility has arisen of conducting the study of criminal problems on anything approaching an exact and scientific basis.

to a high degree or extent; favorably or with much respect

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

plural of “hulk” — a very large person; impressive in size or qualities

From this reading Justice had little or no data to go upon; prisoners were sentenced in batches to the gallows, to transportation, to the hulks, or to the county gaol, but no inquiry was made as to the result of these punishments on the criminal classes or on the progress of crime.

not capable of occurring or being accomplished or dealt with

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

inside something, or within a place, period, or state

From this reading It is only within the present century, and in some countries it is only within the present generation, that the possibility has arisen of conducting the study of criminal problems on anything approaching an exact and scientific basis.

becoming greater or larger

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

a search for knowledge

From this reading Justice had little or no data to go upon; prisoners were sentenced in batches to the gallows, to transportation, to the hulks, or to the county gaol, but no inquiry was made as to the result of these punishments on the criminal classes or on the progress of crime.

the act of beginning something new

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

the form of “be” used with he, she, it, or a singular noun

From this reading It is only within the present century, and in some countries it is only within the present generation, that the possibility has arisen of conducting the study of criminal problems on anything approaching an exact and scientific basis.

a thing, animal, or idea already mentioned

From this reading It is only within the present century, and in some countries it is only within the present generation, that the possibility has arisen of conducting the study of criminal problems on anything approaching an exact and scientific basis.

the quality of being just or fair

From this reading Justice had little or no data to go upon; prisoners were sentenced in batches to the gallows, to transportation, to the hulks, or to the county gaol, but no inquiry was made as to the result of these punishments on the criminal classes or on the progress of crime.

limited or below average in number or quantity or magnitude or extent

From this reading Justice had little or no data to go upon; prisoners were sentenced in batches to the gallows, to transportation, to the hulks, or to the county gaol, but no inquiry was made as to the result of these punishments on the criminal classes or on the progress of crime.

the experience of being alive; the course of human events and activities

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

produced by a manufacturing process

From this reading Justice had little or no data to go upon; prisoners were sentenced in batches to the gallows, to transportation, to the hulks, or to the county gaol, but no inquiry was made as to the result of these punishments on the criminal classes or on the progress of crime.

The faculty by which the mind stores and remembers information and knowledge.

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

the force of workers available

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

used to form the superlative

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

not any; not one

From this reading Justice had little or no data to go upon; prisoners were sentenced in batches to the gallows, to transportation, to the hulks, or to the county gaol, but no inquiry was made as to the result of these punishments on the criminal classes or on the progress of crime.

belonging to, or connected with, somebody or something

From this reading THE STATISTICS OF CRIME.

touching and supported by a surface

From this reading It is only within the present century, and in some countries it is only within the present generation, that the possibility has arisen of conducting the study of criminal problems on anything approaching an exact and scientific basis.

and nothing more

From this reading It is only within the present century, and in some countries it is only within the present generation, that the possibility has arisen of conducting the study of criminal problems on anything approaching an exact and scientific basis.

used to join alternatives or possibilities

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

being a member of or formed into a labor union

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

(American football) a play that involves one player throwing the ball to a teammate

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

the human beings of a particular nation or community or ethnic group

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

a point located with respect to surface features of some region

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

involving or characteristic of politics or parties or politicians

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

the people who inhabit a territory or state

From this reading It was also equally impossible to appreciate the effect of punishment for good or evil on the criminal population.

a future prospect or potential

From this reading It is only within the present century, and in some countries it is only within the present generation, that the possibility has arisen of conducting the study of criminal problems on anything approaching an exact and scientific basis.

give an exhibition of to an interested audience

From this reading It is only within the present century, and in some countries it is only within the present generation, that the possibility has arisen of conducting the study of criminal problems on anything approaching an exact and scientific basis.

plural of “prisoner” — a person who is confined; especially a prisoner of war

From this reading Justice had little or no data to go upon; prisoners were sentenced in batches to the gallows, to transportation, to the hulks, or to the county gaol, but no inquiry was made as to the result of these punishments on the criminal classes or on the progress of crime.

plural of “problem” — a state of difficulty that needs to be resolved

From this reading It is only within the present century, and in some countries it is only within the present generation, that the possibility has arisen of conducting the study of criminal problems on anything approaching an exact and scientific basis.

gradual improvement or growth or development

From this reading Justice had little or no data to go upon; prisoners were sentenced in batches to the gallows, to transportation, to the hulks, or to the county gaol, but no inquiry was made as to the result of these punishments on the criminal classes or on the progress of crime.

the act of punishing

From this reading It was also equally impossible to appreciate the effect of punishment for good or evil on the criminal population.

plural of “punishment” — the act of punishing

From this reading Justice had little or no data to go upon; prisoners were sentenced in batches to the gallows, to transportation, to the hulks, or to the county gaol, but no inquiry was made as to the result of these punishments on the criminal classes or on the progress of crime.

a phenomenon that follows and is caused by some previous phenomenon

From this reading Justice had little or no data to go upon; prisoners were sentenced in batches to the gallows, to transportation, to the hulks, or to the county gaol, but no inquiry was made as to the result of these punishments on the criminal classes or on the progress of crime.

of or relating to the practice of science

From this reading It is only within the present century, and in some countries it is only within the present generation, that the possibility has arisen of conducting the study of criminal problems on anything approaching an exact and scientific basis.

past form of “sentence” — pronounce a sentence on (somebody) in a court of law

From this reading Justice had little or no data to go upon; prisoners were sentenced in batches to the gallows, to transportation, to the hulks, or to the county gaol, but no inquiry was made as to the result of these punishments on the criminal classes or on the progress of crime.

relating to human society and its members

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

plural of “society” — an extended social group having a distinctive cultural and economic organization

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

(quantifier) used with either mass nouns or plural count nouns to indicate an unspecified number or quantity

From this reading It is only within the present century, and in some countries it is only within the present generation, that the possibility has arisen of conducting the study of criminal problems on anything approaching an exact and scientific basis.

a branch of applied mathematics concerned with the collection and interpretation of quantitative data and the use of probability theory to estimate population parameters

From this reading THE STATISTICS OF CRIME.

any maneuver made as part of progress toward a goal

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

not in physical motion

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

a detailed critical inspection

From this reading It is only within the present century, and in some countries it is only within the present generation, that the possibility has arisen of conducting the study of criminal problems on anything approaching an exact and scientific basis.

instrumentality that combines interrelated interacting artifacts designed to work as a coherent entity

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

understood in a certain way; made sense of

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

the act of someone who picks up or takes something

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

used to introduce what somebody said, thought, or felt

From this reading It is only within the present century, and in some countries it is only within the present generation, that the possibility has arisen of conducting the study of criminal problems on anything approaching an exact and scientific basis.

used before a noun that is already known, already mentioned, or the only one of its kind

From this reading THE STATISTICS OF CRIME.

the plural of “this”: the people or things near, or just mentioned

From this reading Justice had little or no data to go upon; prisoners were sentenced in batches to the gallows, to transportation, to the hulks, or to the county gaol, but no inquiry was made as to the result of these punishments on the criminal classes or on the progress of crime.

from one end or side of something to the other

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

used before the base form of a verb to make the infinitive

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

a qualitative change

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

a facility consisting of the means and equipment necessary for the movement of passengers or goods

From this reading Justice had little or no data to go upon; prisoners were sentenced in batches to the gallows, to transportation, to the hulks, or to the county gaol, but no inquiry was made as to the result of these punishments on the criminal classes or on the progress of crime.

a formal word for “on”

From this reading Justice had little or no data to go upon; prisoners were sentenced in batches to the gallows, to transportation, to the hulks, or to the county gaol, but no inquiry was made as to the result of these punishments on the criminal classes or on the progress of crime.

the past form of “be” used with I, he, she, it, or a singular noun

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

the past form of “be” used with you, we, they, or a plural noun

From this reading Justice had little or no data to go upon; prisoners were sentenced in batches to the gallows, to transportation, to the hulks, or to the county gaol, but no inquiry was made as to the result of these punishments on the criminal classes or on the progress of crime.

used to ask for information about something

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

used to introduce two or more possibilities

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

in the company of; together with

From this reading Before the introduction of a system of criminal statistics--a step taken by most peoples within the memory of men still living--it was impossible for civilised communities to ascertain with absolute accuracy whether crime was increasing or decreasing, or what transformation it was passing through in consequence of the social, political, and economic changes constantly taking place in all highly organised societies.

inside; before a period of time has passed

From this reading It is only within the present century, and in some countries it is only within the present generation, that the possibility has arisen of conducting the study of criminal problems on anything approaching an exact and scientific basis.