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Past and Present
Past and Present

Chapter XX · Chapter 20

Chapter 20 of Past and Present is here in full — 108 sentences across 22 reading sections, with audio for every sentence and word.

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Context Illustration Reading 1/21 · 5 lines
English subtitles · tap any word to listen 1 / 5
The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!
Formulas too, as we call them, have a _reality_ in Human Life.
They are real as the very _skin_ and _muscular tissue_ of a Man's Life; and a most blessed indispensable thing, so long as they have _vitality_ withal, and are a living skin and tissue to him!
No man, or man's life, can go abroad and do business in the world without skin and tissues.
No; first of all, these have to fashion themselves,--as indeed they spontaneously and inevitably do.
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LEARNER DICTIONARY
Archivist
/ˈɑːrkɪvɪst/
Editorial verification pending

A keeper or guardian of historical records and memories.

Past and Present

Chapter XX · Chapter 20

Chapter 20 of Past and Present is here in full — 108 sentences across 22 reading sections, with audio for every sentence and word.

Reading 1/21 · 5 reading units · Lines 1–5

Line 1
The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!
Line 2
Formulas too, as we call them, have a _reality_ in Human Life.
/ˈfɔːrmjələz tuː æz wiː kɔːl ðem hæv ə ˌriːˈælətiː ɪn ˈhjuːmən laɪf/
Line 3
They are real as the very _skin_ and _muscular tissue_ of a Man's Life; and a most blessed indispensable thing, so long as they have _vitality_ withal, and are a living skin and tissue to him!
Line 4
No man, or man's life, can go abroad and do business in the world without skin and tissues.
/noʊ mæn ɔːr mænz laɪf kæn ɡoʊ əˈbrɔːd ənd duː ˈbɪznəs ɪn ðə wɜːrld wɪˈθaʊt skɪn ənd ˈtɪsjuːz/
Line 5
No; first of all, these have to fashion themselves,--as indeed they spontaneously and inevitably do.

Learner Dictionary

These definitions explain words found in the current reading and keep every example grounded in its original sentence.

Oxford-style entry order: headword, part of speech, US IPA, concise definition, contextual example, and audio.

Beginnings noun US /bɪˈɡɪnɪŋz/

plural of “beginning” — the event consisting of the start of something

From this reading “The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!”

creeds noun US /kriːdz/

plural of “creed” — any system of principles or beliefs

From this reading “The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!”

Formulas noun US /ˈfɔːrmjələz/

plural of “formula” — a group of symbols that make a mathematical statement

From this reading “Formulas too, as we call them, have a _reality_ in Human Life.”

modify verb US /ˈmɑːdəfaɪ/

make less severe or harsh or extreme

From this reading “The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!”

Samson noun US /ˈsæmsən/

(Old Testament) a judge of Israel who performed herculean feats of strength against the Philistines until he was betrayed to them by his mistress Delilah

From this reading “The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!”

spontaneously adverb US /spɑːnˈteɪniəsli/

in a spontaneous manner

From this reading “No; first of all, these have to fashion themselves,--as indeed they spontaneously and inevitably do.”

tissue noun US /ˈtɪsjuː/

part of an organism consisting of an aggregate of cells having a similar structure and function

From this reading “They are real as the very _skin_ and _muscular tissue_ of a Man's Life; and a most blessed indispensable thing, so long as they have _vitality_ withal, and are a living skin and tissue to him!”

tissues noun US /ˈtɪsjuːz/

plural of “tissue” — part of an organism consisting of an aggregate of cells having a similar structure and function

From this reading “No man, or man's life, can go abroad and do business in the world without skin and tissues.”

All words in this reading · 73

Every word in these five lines is listed here, and every one of them can be played on its own.

Dictionary details are shown only when verified; these are not licensed Oxford entries.

adeterminerUS /ə/

used before a singular noun to mean one of a group, when it is not a particular one

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

AbbotnounUS /ˈæbət/

the superior of an abbey of monks

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

abroadadverbUS /əˈbrɔːd/

to or in a foreign country

From this reading No man, or man's life, can go abroad and do business in the world without skin and tissues.

alladjectiveUS /ɔːl/

(quantifier) used with either mass or count nouns to indicate the whole number or amount of or every one of a class

From this reading No; first of all, these have to fashion themselves,--as indeed they spontaneously and inevitably do.

andconjunctionUS /ənd/

used to join words or parts of a sentence that go together

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

areauxiliary verbUS /ɑːr/

the form of “be” used with you, we, they, or a plural noun

From this reading They are real as the very _skin_ and _muscular tissue_ of a Man's Life; and a most blessed indispensable thing, so long as they have _vitality_ withal, and are a living skin and tissue to him!

asconjunctionUS /æz/

at the same time that; because; in the way that

From this reading Formulas too, as we call them, have a _reality_ in Human Life.

BeginningsnounUS /bɪˈɡɪnɪŋz/

plural of “beginning” — the event consisting of the start of something

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

birthnounUS /bɜːrθ/

the time when something begins (especially life)

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

blessedadjectiveUS /blest/

highly favored or fortunate (as e.g. by divine grace)

From this reading They are real as the very _skin_ and _muscular tissue_ of a Man's Life; and a most blessed indispensable thing, so long as they have _vitality_ withal, and are a living skin and tissue to him!

businessnounUS /ˈbɪznəs/

a commercial or industrial enterprise and the people who constitute it

From this reading No man, or man's life, can go abroad and do business in the world without skin and tissues.

callverbUS /kɔːl/

assign a specified (usually proper) proper name to

From this reading Formulas too, as we call them, have a _reality_ in Human Life.

canmodal verbUS /kæn/

to be able to, or to be allowed to

From this reading No man, or man's life, can go abroad and do business in the world without skin and tissues.

creedsnounUS /kriːdz/

plural of “creed” — any system of principles or beliefs

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

datenounUS /deɪt/

the specified day of the month

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

doauxiliary verbUS /duː/

used to form questions and negatives, and to give emphasis

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

fashionnounUS /ˈfæʃən/

how something is done or how it happens

From this reading No; first of all, these have to fashion themselves,--as indeed they spontaneously and inevitably do.

figurenounUS /ˈfɪɡjər/

a diagram or picture illustrating textual material

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

firstadjectiveUS /fɜːrst/

preceding all others in time or space or degree

From this reading No; first of all, these have to fashion themselves,--as indeed they spontaneously and inevitably do.

formularies

Dictionary entry pending editorial verification. Tap Listen to hear the word.

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

FormulasnounUS /ˈfɔːrmjələz/

plural of “formula” — a group of symbols that make a mathematical statement

From this reading Formulas too, as we call them, have a _reality_ in Human Life.

goverbUS /ɡoʊ/

change location; move, travel, or proceed, also metaphorically

From this reading No man, or man's life, can go abroad and do business in the world without skin and tissues.

haveauxiliary verbUS /hæv/

used with a past participle to form the perfect tenses

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

himpronounUS /hɪm/

the male already mentioned, as the object of a verb or preposition

From this reading They are real as the very _skin_ and _muscular tissue_ of a Man's Life; and a most blessed indispensable thing, so long as they have _vitality_ withal, and are a living skin and tissue to him!

hisdeterminerUS /hɪz/

belonging to a man, boy, or male animal already mentioned

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

historynounUS /ˈhɪstəri/

the aggregate of past events

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

how

Dictionary entry pending editorial verification. Tap Listen to hear the word.

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

HumanadjectiveUS /ˈhjuːmən/

characteristic of humanity

From this reading Formulas too, as we call them, have a _reality_ in Human Life.

inprepositionUS /ɪn/

inside something, or within a place, period, or state

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

indeedadverbUS /ˌɪnˈdiːd/

in truth (often tends to intensify)

From this reading No; first of all, these have to fashion themselves,--as indeed they spontaneously and inevitably do.

indispensableadjectiveUS /ˌɪndɪˈspensəbəl/

not to be dispensed with; essential

From this reading They are real as the very _skin_ and _muscular tissue_ of a Man's Life; and a most blessed indispensable thing, so long as they have _vitality_ withal, and are a living skin and tissue to him!

inevitablyadverbUS /ˌɪˈnevətəbli/

in such a manner as could not be otherwise

From this reading No; first of all, these have to fashion themselves,--as indeed they spontaneously and inevitably do.

LifenounUS /laɪf/

a characteristic state or mode of living

From this reading Formulas too, as we call them, have a _reality_ in Human Life.

livingnounUS /ˈlɪvɪŋ/

the experience of being alive; the course of human events and activities

From this reading They are real as the very _skin_ and _muscular tissue_ of a Man's Life; and a most blessed indispensable thing, so long as they have _vitality_ withal, and are a living skin and tissue to him!

longadjectiveUS /lɔːŋ/

primarily temporal sense; being or indicating a relatively great or greater than average duration or passage of time or a duration as specified

From this reading They are real as the very _skin_ and _muscular tissue_ of a Man's Life; and a most blessed indispensable thing, so long as they have _vitality_ withal, and are a living skin and tissue to him!

MannounUS /mæn/

an adult person who is male (as opposed to a woman)

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

man'snounUS /mænz/

possessive form of “man” — an adult person who is male (as opposed to a woman)

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

modesnounUS /moʊdz/

plural of “mode” — how something is done or how it happens

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

modifyverbUS /ˈmɑːdəfaɪ/

make less severe or harsh or extreme

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

mostadverbUS /moʊst/

used to form the superlative

From this reading They are real as the very _skin_ and _muscular tissue_ of a Man's Life; and a most blessed indispensable thing, so long as they have _vitality_ withal, and are a living skin and tissue to him!

muscularadjectiveUS /ˈmʌskjələr/

of or relating to or consisting of muscle

From this reading They are real as the very _skin_ and _muscular tissue_ of a Man's Life; and a most blessed indispensable thing, so long as they have _vitality_ withal, and are a living skin and tissue to him!

NodeterminerUS /noʊ/

not any; not one

From this reading No man, or man's life, can go abroad and do business in the world without skin and tissues.

ofprepositionUS /ʌv/

belonging to, or connected with, somebody or something

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

orconjunctionUS /ɔːr/

used to join alternatives or possibilities

From this reading No man, or man's life, can go abroad and do business in the world without skin and tissues.

placenounUS /pleɪs/

a point located with respect to surface features of some region

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

realadjectiveUS /riːl/

being or occurring in fact or actuality; having verified existence; not illusory

From this reading They are real as the very _skin_ and _muscular tissue_ of a Man's Life; and a most blessed indispensable thing, so long as they have _vitality_ withal, and are a living skin and tissue to him!

realitynounUS /ˌriːˈælətiː/

all of your experiences that determine how things appear to you

From this reading Formulas too, as we call them, have a _reality_ in Human Life.

SamsonnounUS /ˈsæmsən/

(Old Testament) a judge of Israel who performed herculean feats of strength against the Philistines until he was betrayed to them by his mistress Delilah

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

shapenounUS /ʃeɪp/

any spatial attributes (especially as defined by outline)

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

singularadjectiveUS /ˈsɪŋɡjələr/

unusual or striking

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

skinnounUS /skɪn/

a natural protective body covering and site of the sense of touch

From this reading They are real as the very _skin_ and _muscular tissue_ of a Man's Life; and a most blessed indispensable thing, so long as they have _vitality_ withal, and are a living skin and tissue to him!

soconjunctionUS /soʊ/

for that reason; with the result that

From this reading They are real as the very _skin_ and _muscular tissue_ of a Man's Life; and a most blessed indispensable thing, so long as they have _vitality_ withal, and are a living skin and tissue to him!

spontaneouslyadverbUS /spɑːnˈteɪniəsli/

in a spontaneous manner

From this reading No; first of all, these have to fashion themselves,--as indeed they spontaneously and inevitably do.

strangelyadverbUS /ˈstreɪndʒli/

in a strange manner

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

ThedeterminerUS /ðə/

used before a noun that is already known, already mentioned, or the only one of its kind

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

thempronounUS /ðem/

the people or things already mentioned, as the object

From this reading Formulas too, as we call them, have a _reality_ in Human Life.

themselvespronounUS /ðemˈselvz/

used when the people doing the action are also its object

From this reading No; first of all, these have to fashion themselves,--as indeed they spontaneously and inevitably do.

thesedeterminerUS /ðiːz/

the plural of “this”: the people or things near, or just mentioned

From this reading No; first of all, these have to fashion themselves,--as indeed they spontaneously and inevitably do.

TheypronounUS /ðeɪ/

the people, animals, or things already mentioned, as the subject

From this reading They are real as the very _skin_ and _muscular tissue_ of a Man's Life; and a most blessed indispensable thing, so long as they have _vitality_ withal, and are a living skin and tissue to him!

thingnounUS /θɪŋ/

a special situation

From this reading They are real as the very _skin_ and _muscular tissue_ of a Man's Life; and a most blessed indispensable thing, so long as they have _vitality_ withal, and are a living skin and tissue to him!

thisdeterminerUS /ðɪs/

used for a person or thing that is near, or that has just been mentioned

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

TimenounUS /taɪm/

an instance or single occasion for some event

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

tissuenounUS /ˈtɪsjuː/

part of an organism consisting of an aggregate of cells having a similar structure and function

From this reading They are real as the very _skin_ and _muscular tissue_ of a Man's Life; and a most blessed indispensable thing, so long as they have _vitality_ withal, and are a living skin and tissue to him!

tissuesnounUS /ˈtɪsjuːz/

plural of “tissue” — part of an organism consisting of an aggregate of cells having a similar structure and function

From this reading No man, or man's life, can go abroad and do business in the world without skin and tissues.

toparticleUS /tuː/

used before the base form of a verb to make the infinitive

From this reading They are real as the very _skin_ and _muscular tissue_ of a Man's Life; and a most blessed indispensable thing, so long as they have _vitality_ withal, and are a living skin and tissue to him!

tooadverbUS /tuː/

to a degree exceeding normal or proper limits

From this reading Formulas too, as we call them, have a _reality_ in Human Life.

veryadjectiveUS /ˈveri/

precisely as stated

From this reading They are real as the very _skin_ and _muscular tissue_ of a Man's Life; and a most blessed indispensable thing, so long as they have _vitality_ withal, and are a living skin and tissue to him!

vitalitynounUS /vaɪˈtæləti/

an energetic style

From this reading They are real as the very _skin_ and _muscular tissue_ of a Man's Life; and a most blessed indispensable thing, so long as they have _vitality_ withal, and are a living skin and tissue to him!

wepronounUS /wiː/

the speaker together with one or more other people

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

WhatpronounUS /wʌt/

used to ask for information about something

From this reading The Beginnings What a singular shape of a Man; shape of a Time, have we in this Abbot Samson and his history; how strangely do modes, creeds, formularies, and the date and place of a man's birth, modify the figure of the man!

withaladverb

despite anything to the contrary (usually preceding a concession)

From this reading They are real as the very _skin_ and _muscular tissue_ of a Man's Life; and a most blessed indispensable thing, so long as they have _vitality_ withal, and are a living skin and tissue to him!

withoutprepositionUS /wɪˈθaʊt/

not having, not using, or not accompanied by

From this reading No man, or man's life, can go abroad and do business in the world without skin and tissues.

worldnounUS /wɜːrld/

everything that exists anywhere

From this reading No man, or man's life, can go abroad and do business in the world without skin and tissues.

Chapter 20 of Past and Present by Thomas Carlyle holds 108 sentences, grouped into 22 reading sections of at most 5 sentences. The text is the source edition, unabridged, and the chapter records which sentences cover which part of the work so that nothing is dropped. Every word can be tapped for its pronunciation and dictionary entry.

What does chapter 20 of Past and Present contain?

Chapter 20 holds 108 sentences of Past and Present, unabridged, divided into 22 reading sections.

This page carries chapter 20 of Past and Present by Thomas Carlyle exactly as it stands in the source edition, without abridgement. It runs to 108 sentences, grouped into 22 sections of at most 5 sentences so that a reader can take the chapter in steady, finishable pieces. The chapter also stores a coverage record mapping every one of its sentences to a part of the work, which is how the edition demonstrates that no line was dropped.

How do I study chapter 20 of Past and Present?

Work through the 22 sections in order, replaying any sentence and tapping unfamiliar words for their entries.

Each of the 22 sections in this chapter is short enough to read once, hear once, and then re-read with the vocabulary in view. Tapping a word plays it alone and opens its dictionary entry with IPA, part of speech and meaning, so the reader is never forced to guess a pronunciation from spelling. Working section by section keeps a long chapter from becoming an undifferentiated wall of text, which is the usual reason a reader abandons a work of this period.

Can chapter 20 be read aloud to me?

Yes — every sentence and every individual word in chapter 20 can be played aloud in United States English.

Audio covers the whole chapter: any sentence can be played, and any single word within it can be played on its own. The voice uses United States English. For a work of this period that matters, because spelling is an unreliable guide to pronunciation for vocabulary that has fallen out of daily use, and a learner who guesses wrong tends to keep the error. Hearing the word in its own sentence, and then alone, settles it.

Questions about reading Past and Present

Common questions about reading Past and Present by Thomas Carlyle on this page, its source edition and its audio.

Is this the complete text of Past and Present?

Yes. All 4084 sentences of Project Gutenberg eBook #13534 are kept, with a record of which sentences cover which part.

Which edition of Past and Present is used?

Project Gutenberg eBook #13534, unabridged. The Project Gutenberg header, footer and licence are removed.

How long does Past and Present take to read?

About 340 minutes of reading across 817 sections of 5 sentences each, at an unhurried pace.

How to read Past and Present section by section

How to work through Past and Present section by section, using the audio and the tap-to-define vocabulary.

  1. Open a chapter

    Choose one of the 40 chapters of Past and Present to begin.

  2. Read one section

    Each section holds 5 sentences; read it once through.

  3. Listen and tap

    Play the section aloud, then tap any unfamiliar word for its entry.

Vocabulary met early in Past and Present

Words and structures a reader meets early in Past and Present, each tappable for pronunciation and meaning.

Example
A word that appears in the opening chapter of Past and Present; the reader can tap it to hear it and see its dictionary entry.
Other
A word that appears in the opening chapter of Past and Present; the reader can tap it to hear it and see its dictionary entry.
Fable
A word that appears in the opening chapter of Past and Present; the reader can tap it to hear it and see its dictionary entry.
Sphinx
A word that appears in the opening chapter of Past and Present; the reader can tap it to hear it and see its dictionary entry.